All Questions

What are beta cells and why are they important? What happens in my body when I don't have enough insulin? Is type 1 diabetes an autoimmune disease? Why doesn't my pancreas produce insulin anymore? Why is it called "type 1" diabetes? Are there different subtypes of type 1 diabetes? Why am I told I have insulin-dependent diabetes? Can type 1 diabetes occur at any age? How does type 1 diabetes differ from type 2?

What is the difference between incidence and prevalence? Why is knowing T1DM incidence important? At what age is the incidence of T1DM highest? How does T1DM incidence compare with T2DM in children? Can T1DM first appear in adulthood? What is the cumulative incidence of T1DM? Does T1DM incidence differ by sex? Does T1DM incidence differ by continent? Which countries have the highest and lowest T1DM incidence? Does T1DM incidence differ by race? Does T1DM incidence differ by season? Is T1DM incidence increasing? Has the COVID-19 pandemic influenced T1DM incidence?

Does type 1 diabetes increase mortality risk? What is life expectancy in type 1 diabetes? What increases mortality in type 1 diabetes? What role does HbA1c play in reducing mortality in type 1 diabetes? Does obesity increase mortality in type 1 diabetes? What are the main causes of death in type 1 diabetes? How common is death from diabetic ketoacidosis? How common is death from hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes? What role does chronic kidney disease play in mortality in type 1 diabetes? What does "unexplained sudden death" mean in type 1 diabetes? Does mortality in type 1 diabetes differ by sex? Does mortality in type 1 diabetes differ by continent? Which countries have the highest and lowest mortality in type 1 diabetes? Does mortality in type 1 diabetes differ by race? Is mortality in type 1 diabetes increasing?

What role do HLA genes play in the development of type 1 diabetes? Are there HLA genes that protect me against type 1 diabetes? If I have type 1 diabetes, what is the risk that my brother or sister will also develop it? If a parent has type 1 diabetes, what is the probability that a child will inherit the disease? Why do 90% of type 1 diabetes patients have no family member with this disease? What is the genetic risk score for type 1 diabetes? Can newborns be genetically screened for type 1 diabetes risk? What are the non-HLA genes involved in type 1 diabetes risk? What is the concordance rate for type 1 diabetes in identical twins? How does ethnicity influence the genetic risk of developing type 1 diabetes? If I have a relative with type 1 diabetes, should I undergo genetic testing? What is the link between type 1 diabetes genes and other autoimmune diseases? Can I carry risk genes for type 1 diabetes without developing the disease? How do genetic factors interact with environmental factors in triggering type 1 diabetes?

How does birth weight influence the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does caesarean section increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does breastfeeding protect against type 1 diabetes? How does the age at weaning influence the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does early exposure to cow's milk increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does prematurity increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does maternal age at birth increase the child's risk of type 1 diabetes? Do maternal infections during pregnancy increase the child's risk of type 1 diabetes? Does maternal gestational diabetes increase the child's risk of type 1 diabetes? Does birth order (first-born vs. subsequent children) increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does neonatal antibiotic exposure increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Can neonatal jaundice influence the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does the mother's or child's blood group modify the risk of type 1 diabetes?

How can a virus trigger the destruction of pancreatic beta cells? What role does age at the time of viral infection play in the development of type 1 diabetes? Which viruses are associated with the onset of type 1 diabetes? What role do enteroviruses play in the onset of type 1 diabetes? Is there a link between rotavirus infection and type 1 diabetes? Can COVID-19 infection trigger type 1 diabetes? What is the CoviDIAB registry and what information does it aim to collect? Can vaccination against certain viruses prevent type 1 diabetes? Can bacterial infections contribute to the onset of type 1 diabetes? Do repeated infections in the first years of life increase the risk of type 1 diabetes?

Does the mother's diet during pregnancy influence the child's risk of type 1 diabetes? Does high birth weight increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does the timing of cereal introduction in infancy matter for the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does early introduction of fruit and root vegetables in infancy increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Do sugar-sweetened drinks in the first year of life influence the age of onset of type 1 diabetes? What role do cow's milk proteins play in triggering type 1 diabetes? Does rapid weight gain in infancy accelerate the onset of type 1 diabetes? Does excessive calorie intake in childhood increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Can high-glycemic-index foods increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Is sugar intake involved in the progression towards type 1 diabetes? Does gluten consumption increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Do omega-3 fatty acids influence the risk of type 1 diabetes? What effect does a fiber-rich diet have on the risk of type 1 diabetes? Do dietary saturated fats influence the risk of type 1 diabetes? Can nitrates and nitrites in food influence the risk of type 1 diabetes? Do processed foods increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does a vegetarian diet change the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does the Mediterranean diet change the risk or progression of type 1 diabetes? Do zinc and vitamin C influence the risk of beta cell autoimmunity? Do vitamin E and other antioxidants protect against type 1 diabetes?

Does a child's weight change the risk of type 1 diabetes? How does excess weight increase the risk of autoimmunity appearing in children? Why does excess weight not increase the risk in children who have HLA risk genes? What is the "accelerator hypothesis"? Through what mechanism does excess weight accelerate the loss of beta cells? Is the effect of weight equally strong in all children? What should a parent or a doctor actually do?

What role does vitamin D play in the functioning of the immune system? Does vitamin D deficiency affect the function of pancreatic beta cells? How does vitamin D modify the autoimmune response in type 1 diabetes? What is the role of the vitamin D receptor? Does a low vitamin D level in childhood increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Why do people living at northern latitudes have a higher risk of type 1 diabetes? Are there seasonal variations in type 1 diabetes diagnosis related to vitamin D status? Is there a connection between the mother's vitamin D level during pregnancy and the child's risk of type 1 diabetes? Can vitamin D supplementation reduce the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does breast milk provide sufficient vitamin D intake for the infant or is supplementation necessary? Is there a risk of toxicity with long-term vitamin D supplementation? Can sun exposure compensate for vitamin D deficiency? Do active vitamin D analogues (calcitriol, alfacalcidol) have a role in type 1 diabetes prevention? In newly diagnosed patients, can vitamin D prolong the "honeymoon"?

Can type 1 diabetes be triggered by a major stressful event? How does chronic psychological stress affect the immune system? Is there a link between stress in early life and the risk of type 1 diabetes? Can stress accelerate the progression from the preclinical to the clinical stage of type 1 diabetes? Do children growing up in a tense family environment have a higher risk of type 1 diabetes? Does school or exam-related stress increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Why does the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes sometimes appear shortly after a stressful event? Can physical stress trigger type 1 diabetes? Can stress management reduce the risk of type 1 diabetes in genetically predisposed individuals? Can stress cause elevated blood glucose even in people who don't yet have type 1 diabetes?

What is the gut microbiome? Are there differences in the composition of the gut microbiota between people with and without type 1 diabetes? How does caesarean birth influence the gut microbiome? Does the use of probiotics reduce the risk of type 1 diabetes? What is the link between increased intestinal permeability and type 1 diabetes? How do antibiotics given in childhood influence the gut microbiome? What role do the short-chain fatty acids produced by gut bacteria play? Does a fiber-rich diet change the gut microbiome? Could faecal microbiota transplantation be a strategy for preventing type 1 diabetes?

Is there a seasonal variation in type 1 diabetes diagnosis? Does air pollution increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does exposure to pesticides or other chemicals increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Is there a link between urbanization and the risk of type 1 diabetes? Can climate and the length of sunny days influence the risk of type 1 diabetes? Does access to clean drinking water change the risk of type 1 diabetes? Do endocrine disruptors (bisphenol A, phthalates) increase the risk of type 1 diabetes? Can microplastics and plastic food packaging increase the risk of type 1 diabetes?

What are the diagnostic criteria for type 1 diabetes? How many positive tests are needed for a firm diagnosis? What does glycated hemoglobin ≥6.5% (48 mmol/mol) mean for diagnosis? How is the glucose tolerance test interpreted? Is a random plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) enough for diagnosis? What autoantibodies confirm the autoimmune origin of diabetes? What is the role of C-peptide measurement in the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes? Are ketonaemia and ketonuria diagnostic criteria? Do diagnostic criteria differ in children compared to adults?

What are the main modes of onset of type 1 diabetes? What is onset with diabetic ketoacidosis? What does "classic" onset mean? How often does silent onset occur? How fast does type 1 diabetes begin: suddenly or gradually? At what age does type 1 diabetes most often begin? How does onset differ in young children compared with adolescents and adults? What triggering factors can precipitate clinical onset? Is hospitalization needed at onset? How quickly should insulin therapy be started after diagnosis?

What is diabetic ketoacidosis? How often does ketoacidosis occur at the onset of type 1 diabetes? What are the symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis at onset? What blood glucose, pH and bicarbonate values define ketoacidosis? What are the causes of ketoacidosis at the onset of type 1 diabetes? How serious can ketoacidosis at onset be? What is cerebral edema and why does it occur in ketoacidosis? How is ketoacidosis treated in hospital? How long does hospital stay for ketoacidosis at onset last? How can ketoacidosis be prevented in the siblings of children with type 1 diabetes?

What emotional reactions appear immediately after the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes? Is it normal to feel shock, denial or anger after receiving the diagnosis? What is the grieving process at the onset of type 1 diabetes? Why does anxiety related to injections or hypoglycemia appear? Can I become depressed in the first months after diagnosis? How do children react compared to adults at the moment of onset? How does your type 1 diabetes diagnosis affect the family? Why does the feeling of guilt appear in parents of children with type 1 diabetes? When should I turn to specialized psychological support?

Can I develop type 1 diabetes as an adult? What is LADA and why is it also called type 1.5 diabetes? At what age does adult-onset type 1 diabetes most frequently begin? How is LADA distinguished from type 2 diabetes at diagnosis? What autoantibodies are tested in an adult with suspected type 1 diabetes? Why are many adults misdiagnosed with type 2 diabetes? How quickly do adults need insulin after a diagnosis of LADA? Does adult autoimmune diabetes respond to oral antidiabetic drugs? What is the prognosis of adult-onset type 1 diabetes?

What are the key differences between type 1 and type 2 diabetes? Which is more serious, type 1 or type 2 diabetes? What is MODY diabetes and how is it told apart from type 1 diabetes? How do we recognize neonatal diabetes versus type 1 diabetes in infants? What is the difference between type 1 diabetes and secondary diabetes? What role do autoantibodies play in differential diagnosis? Does C-peptide help tell the types of diabetes apart? Are age and obesity sufficient criteria for the distinction? Are there situations in which the type of diabetes is reclassified over time? Can gestational diabetes evolve into type 1 diabetes? How is type 1 diabetes told apart from transient hyperglycemia?

What exactly does glycated hemoglobin show? How often do I have the HbA1c test? What is my HbA1c target? How does HbA1c differ from daily blood glucose? What factors influence the HbA1c value? Can I have a good HbA1c with large glucose swings? How do I calculate average glucose from HbA1c? Why does the doctor want HbA1c below 7% (53 mmol/mol)? Can HbA1c be too low?

What are the evolutionary stages of type 1 diabetes? What is autoimmune screening for type 1 diabetes? Who should undergo screening for type 1 diabetes? At what age is screening started and how often is it repeated? What risk of progression does a person with two or more positive autoantibodies have? Are there treatments available in the preclinical stages? Is universal population screening recommended? What monitoring is done after a positive screening?

What is the honeymoon period in type 1 diabetes? How long does the honeymoon period last in type 1 diabetes? Why do I need less insulin now? Can I stop taking insulin during the honeymoon period? How do I know when the honeymoon period is ending? Do all patients with type 1 diabetes have a honeymoon period? Can I prolong the honeymoon period? Why does my blood glucose fluctuate during the honeymoon period? Is it normal to have partial remission? What happens after the honeymoon period?

Do I still have working beta cells after diagnosis? How do I protect my remaining beta cells? Does tight glycemic control help beta cells? Are there medicines that preserve beta cell function? How long can residual beta cells survive? How do I measure residual beta cell function? Why is it important to preserve beta cells? Can diet protect my remaining beta cells?

How do insulin requirements change over the long term? How does insulin sensitivity change over time? Are there long-term stages of the disease? What is "brittle diabetes"? How many years after onset do the first chronic complications appear? What factors worsen the long-term course? Can periods of temporary "relief" occur? How does the general approach change at different ages?

What is an autoantibody? Why do autoantibodies appear in type 1 diabetes? What are the 4 autoantibodies specific to type 1 diabetes? What are anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase antibodies (GADA)? What are anti-tyrosine phosphatase antibodies (IA-2A)? What are anti-insulin antibodies (IAA)? What are anti-zinc transporter 8 antibodies (ZnT8A)? How accurate are autoantibodies for the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes? Can I have autoantibodies without developing diabetes? Can I develop type 1 diabetes without autoantibodies present? Do autoantibodies disappear after diabetes has set in? Are there newer autoantibodies, not yet used in routine tests?

What does diversification of the autoimmune response mean? Why does the number of autoantibodies increase over time? What is the typical order in which the autoantibodies appear? Why does IAA often appear first in the young child? Why does GADA more often appear first in the adolescent or adult? What does it mean to have 1, 2 or 3 positive autoantibodies at the same time? Why does the presence of 2+ autoantibodies predict type 1 diabetes? Can I remain for years with a single autoantibody? Can the autoantibodies disappear once they have appeared?

Who is recommended to have autoantibody testing for type 1 diabetes? When is it useful to test my child if I have type 1 diabetes? What laboratory methods exist for testing? Which method is the most accurate for type 1 diabetes autoantibodies? Why can IAA no longer be interpreted if you are already on insulin? How do I interpret a weakly positive result? What does a high autoantibody titre mean? Can autoantibodies that are negative today become positive in the future? Are there capillary (fingertip) screening tests?

What is molecular mimicry? How do we defend ourselves against molecular mimicry? Which viral proteins resemble the pancreatic antigens? How does the Coxsackie B virus imitate the GAD protein? How does rotavirus imitate the IA-2 protein? Are there similarities between SARS-CoV-2 and the pancreatic antigens? Is there solid evidence of molecular mimicry in humans?

What is an autoimmune disease? How does the immune system attack the pancreatic beta cells? Who are the main players in the destruction of the beta cells? How long does the autoimmune process take until symptoms appear? What initially triggers the autoimmune process? Does the autoimmune process continue after the diagnosis has been made? Why do some people have a rapid progression and others a slow one? Does the autoimmune attack also affect the alpha or delta cells? Are there ways to stop the immune process after it has started? Why does the autoimmune attack recur after islet transplantation?

What is insulitis? What does an attacked pancreatic islet look like under the microscope? What types of immune cells infiltrate around an islet? Why is the distribution of insulitis lobular and not uniform in the pancreas? Why do some islets appear untouched? What do studies on organs from deceased patients with type 1 diabetes show? What do studies with pancreatic biopsies from living patients show? Does insulitis look the same in children and in adults? Does insulitis persist even after years of diabetes? Can functional beta cells remain even after 50 years of diabetes? Why can a routine pancreatic biopsy not be done for diagnosis?

What is immune memory? Why does the immune system remember the beta cells it has attacked? Why does the honeymoon end after a few months or years? Are there memory T cells specific to beta cell antigens? Why is it so hard to stop an autoimmune reaction that has already been memorized? Why does an islet transplant without immunosuppression fail quickly? Can memory T cells be eliminated selectively? What does T cell exhaustion mean? Are there situations in which immune memory weakens spontaneously? Can immune memory be reset through a bone marrow transplant? Why is the honeymoon longer in some patients than in others?

Why does type 1 diabetes carry an increased risk of other autoimmune diseases? What is autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome (APS)? What are the differences between APS-1, APS-2 and APS-3? How common is Hashimoto's thyroiditis in type 1 diabetes? Does Graves' disease also occur in association with type 1 diabetes? How common is celiac disease in type 1 diabetes? How do we recognize Addison's disease? Does vitiligo occur more often in type 1 diabetes? What is pernicious anemia? What other rarer associations with type 1 diabetes exist? How often should screening for the associated autoimmune diseases be done? Can the associations appear at any time or only within certain age windows?

What is hypoglycemia? At what blood glucose level does hypoglycemia start? What are the severity levels of hypoglycemia? What does clinically significant hypoglycemia mean? What does hypoglycemia feel like? Is a low glucose reading without symptoms still hypoglycemia? What is relative hypoglycemia? Why does hypoglycemia happen in type 1 diabetes? Does hypoglycemia also happen in people without diabetes? What does severe hypoglycemia mean? Is the hypoglycemia threshold the same at all ages? What is impaired awareness of hypoglycemia? How often does hypoglycemia happen? Why is nighttime hypoglycemia different? Can a sensor warn me about hypoglycemia? What risks come with repeated hypoglycemia? When should I seek medical help for hypoglycemia?

Why does hypoglycemia happen if you have type 1 diabetes? What happens in the body when blood glucose starts to fall? What role does the glucagon from your own pancreas play? Why does the body's defense response weaken over time? What is hypoglycemia-associated autonomic failure? Can the liver correct a hypoglycemia on its own? Can insulin be stopped inside the body after it has been given? Can a correctly calculated insulin dose still cause hypoglycemia? Can hypoglycemia happen without a cause you can identify? Does the brain suffer during a hypoglycemia?

What are the first signs of hypoglycemia? Why do shakiness and cold sweats appear when glucose falls? What symptoms appear when the brain gets too little glucose? Do hypoglycemia symptoms differ from one patient to another? Do hypoglycemia symptoms change over the years? Is sudden hunger always a sign of hypoglycemia? Can palpitations and nervousness be mistaken for something else? How do you recognize hypoglycemia in a young child? Do people around you notice the signs before you do? What symptoms remain after blood glucose returns to normal?

Should you check your glucose before treating hypoglycemia? What do you do if you have symptoms but no meter at hand? Does the sensor show the same value as the meter? Why does the sensor lag behind the blood glucose value? When do you confirm the sensor value with a meter? What is a false nighttime low on the sensor? Does the sensor trend arrow help you decide on treatment? What do you do when the meter and the sensor differ a lot? Can dirty hands give a wrong reading on the meter? How often do you check your glucose during an episode?

How do I treat mild hypoglycemia? Which foods raise blood glucose fastest? Why do chocolate, nuts or ice cream not help? How long do I wait before rechecking my glucose? What if my glucose does not rise after two rounds? What do I do in severe hypoglycemia? How is glucagon given and who needs to know? What do I do right after my glucose is back to normal? How do I treat hypoglycemia that happens at night? What if it happens while driving or exercising?

What are carbohydrates? Do carbohydrates raise blood glucose more than protein and fat? Why do you count carbohydrates if you have type 1 diabetes? Does carbohydrate counting improve glycemic control? Does carbohydrate counting mean eating fewer carbohydrates? How much do different types of carbohydrate raise blood glucose? What is the glycemic index and how much does it matter? Is carbohydrate counting useful in type 2 diabetes as well? How long does it take to learn carbohydrate counting? Who can teach you carbohydrate counting?

What are the main food groups that contain carbohydrates? Do bread, pasta, rice and potatoes have the same amount of carbohydrate? Does fruit contain carbohydrates that have to be counted? Are vegetables counted as carbohydrates? Do milk and yogurt contain carbohydrates? Does cheese contain carbohydrates? Do meat, fish and eggs contain carbohydrates? Do nuts and seeds contain carbohydrates? Do drinks provide carbohydrates that count? Which foods contain no carbohydrates at all?

In what units are the carbohydrates in a meal expressed? What is a carbohydrate portion? Does a portion contain 10 g or 15 g of carbohydrate? How do you convert carbohydrate grams into portions? Why do some materials use the bread unit or the carbohydrate unit? Is it better to count in grams or in portions? How accurate does your counting need to be? Does a 10 g carbohydrate error change blood glucose much? How do you record carbohydrates in your blood glucose journal? What does "30 g of carbohydrate" mean on your plate?

Where do you find carbohydrate on the nutrition label? What does "carbohydrate" mean on the label? What does "of which sugars" mean? Are the values on the label given per 100 g or per portion? How do you work out the carbohydrate for the amount you eat? Is fiber included in the total carbohydrate on the label? What does the claim "no added sugars" mean? Do products aimed at people with diabetes contain less carbohydrate? What do you do when a product has no nutrition label? How accurate are the values on the label?

Why is a kitchen scale useful? How do you use a kitchen scale correctly? Do you weigh food raw or cooked? Why do pasta and rice change weight after boiling? How do you weigh a food with peel, stones or bones? How do you use food composition tables? How long do you have to weigh your food? Can weighing food feed an unhealthy relationship with eating? Which foods must you weigh and which can you estimate? How do you check whether your estimates are correct?

How do you estimate portions when you have no scale? How do you use your palm and fist to estimate portions? How much is a cup of boiled rice or pasta? How much carbohydrate is in a slice of bread? How much carbohydrate is in a medium-sized fruit? How do you estimate the potatoes on your plate? How do you estimate the large portions served in restaurants? Which apps and databases help with estimation? Does photographing your plate help with estimation? How big is the error when you estimate visually?

Does dietary fiber raise blood glucose? Do you have to subtract fiber from total carbohydrate? How do you count the carbohydrates in pulses? What are available carbohydrates? What are polyols? How do you count the polyols in "sugar-free" products? Do calorie-free sweeteners raise blood glucose? What effect does a high-fiber meal have on blood glucose after eating? Can polyols cause digestive upset?

How do you work out the carbohydrates in a home-cooked recipe? How do you divide the carbohydrates in a pot into servings? Does cooking change the amount of carbohydrate in a food? How do you count the carbohydrates in a soup or a broth? How do you count the carbohydrates in a stew with potatoes or rice? Do sauces and dressings contain carbohydrate? Does the flour used for breading or thickening count? How do you count the carbohydrates in a home-made pizza or pie? How do you keep the calculations for recipes you make again? Do the fat and protein in a meal affect blood glucose afterwards?

How do you count carbohydrates at a restaurant? What do you ask the restaurant staff about the dishes? Which dishes are the hardest to estimate? How do you estimate the side dishes served at a restaurant? Do fast-food restaurants provide useful nutrition information? How do you count carbohydrates at a buffet? What do you do at festive meals and birthdays? How do you count carbohydrates while traveling? What do you do when you have underestimated the carbohydrates in a meal? What do you carry with you when you eat out?

What does a meal under 30 g of carbohydrates mean? Why would you choose a meal with fewer carbohydrates? What does the plate of a meal under 30 g of carbohydrates look like? Which foods fill the plate without adding carbohydrates? How do you feel full at a meal with few carbohydrates? Do the protein and fat in a meal need insulin? Does a meal under 30 g of carbohydrates need an insulin bolus? How often can you repeat meals like these? Do meals with few carbohydrates increase the risk of hypoglycemia? What do you discuss with your doctor before cutting carbohydrates from your meals?

Why is breakfast the hardest meal to control? Which egg breakfast stays under 30 g of carbohydrates? Is yogurt with nuts a breakfast under 30 g of carbohydrates? How do you build a breakfast with cheese and vegetables? How many carbohydrates are there in a vegetable omelet? Do oats fit into a breakfast under 30 g of carbohydrates? Which breakfast can you make in 5 minutes? Does coffee with milk bring carbohydrates? Which breakfast do you take with you when you leave home? Does a breakfast under 30 g of carbohydrates keep you full until lunch?

Which lunch can you make in 10 minutes? How do you build a lunch of chicken and vegetables under 30 g of carbohydrates? Is canned fish a good base for lunch? How do you make a hot lunch without a side of potatoes, rice or pasta? How many carbohydrates are there in a small portion of whole-grain pasta? Does half a portion of side dish solve staying under 30 g? Which lunch do you take packed, without reheating it? How do you combine cooked vegetables with a source of protein? Which lunch do you choose when you have very little time? Does a lunch under 30 g of carbohydrates make you feel tired in the afternoon?

Why does the composition of dinner matter for nighttime glucose? Which fish dinner stays under 30 g of carbohydrates? How do you make a dinner with roasted vegetables? Is an omelet a suitable dinner? Which dinner do you choose after a large lunch? Does a dinner rich in fat raise glucose during the night? How long before bedtime should you have dinner? Which dinner reduces the risk of nighttime hypoglycemia? Which dinner do you cook for the whole family? How do you adjust dinner on days with evening exercise?

When do you need a snack? Which snacks stay under 15 g of carbohydrate? Are nuts and seeds a suitable snack? Which snack do you choose in the evening, before bed? Do raw vegetables with hummus stay under 15 g of carbohydrate? Is a boiled egg a useful snack? Which fruits have under 15 g of carbohydrate per portion? Are cheese and lean cold cuts suitable snacks? Do snacks need insulin? Which snack do you keep at the office or in your bag?

What is the difference between rapid and slow insulin? What insulin do I use for meals? What is basal insulin and when do I take it? Are there differences between insulin brands? What are insulin analogs? Does human insulin differ from the analog? How do I choose the right type of insulin for me? What is ultra-rapid insulin and when do I use it? Can I change the insulin type? Which insulin is the best? Is there insulin in pill form? Is there a basal insulin that is taken once a week?

What is the insulin-to-carbohydrate ratio? How do I calculate how much insulin I need for a meal? How do I count the carbohydrates in food? Does my ratio differ between meals? How do I test whether my ratio is correct? Why does the ratio change over time? What apps help me calculate carbohydrates? Do I need to weigh all my food? How do I estimate carbohydrates when eating out? What do I do with complex foods that have many ingredients?

What is the sensitivity factor and how do I calculate it? How do I correct a high blood glucose? Why does the response to a correction differ throughout the day? When should I not make a correction? How do I avoid hypoglycemia after a correction? How long do I wait between corrections? Does the sensitivity factor change with age? How do I test my sensitivity factor? What do I do when I'm sick and corrections don't work? Why does a correction sometimes not lower blood glucose? Does the 1800 rule fit children?

What does the basal-bolus regimen mean? How many injections are needed per day? What is the intensive physiological insulin regimen? Can I use only two injections per day? What do I do if I forget an insulin dose? How do I adjust insulin doses? What regimens do children with diabetes use? Is the pump better than multiple injections? Can I take a GLP-1 medicine if I have type 1 diabetes?

Where can I inject insulin? How do I rotate injection sites? At what depth should I inject? Do I need to disinfect the skin first? How often do I change the pen needle? Why do I have bruises at the injection site? How do I make the injection hurt less? Can I reuse pen needles? What do I do if blood comes out after injection? How do I store insulin correctly? Can I inject through clothes? Why do I have lumps at the injection site?

Can I eat sweets if I have type 1 diabetes? Do I need to follow a special diet? How do I calculate carbohydrates for insulin dosing? Can I consume alcohol with type 1 diabetes? What foods raise blood glucose rapidly? Are there forbidden foods in type 1 diabetes? How do I manage meals at restaurants? Do I have to eat at fixed times? What do I do if I don't have an appetite? How do fibers affect carbohydrate absorption? Can I fast or do intermittent fasting? What artificial sweeteners can I use?

Can I do competitive sport with type 1 diabetes? How do I prepare my glucose for exercise? Why does glucose drop during sport? What do I do if my glucose rises after sport? How do I adjust insulin for physical activity? What snacks should I take with me to sport? Can I exercise if I have ketones? How do I avoid nocturnal hypoglycemia after sport? Which sports are recommended for type 1 diabetes? How do I use the sensor during sport?

Is it normal to be depressed after diagnosis? How do I manage anxiety related to hypoglycemia? What is diabetes burnout? How do I talk about diabetes at work? Can I have a normal life with type 1 diabetes? How do I explain diabetes to friends? Why do I feel guilty when I have high blood glucose? How do I overcome the fear of needles? Is it normal to deny that I have diabetes? Where do I find specialized psychological support? How does diabetes affect my relationships? What do I do when I feel overwhelmed by diabetes management?

What is a glucose sensor? What does a glucose sensor measure? What is continuous glucose monitoring? How does a glucose sensor differ from a glucometer?

What is a transcutaneous sensor? What is an implantable sensor? What is the difference between a transcutaneous sensor and an implantable one? Does a transcutaneous sensor contain a thin wire inserted under the skin? How is an implantable sensor inserted under the skin? Who can fit an implantable sensor? Is inserting an implantable sensor painful? Does the implantable sensor also have a component worn on the skin? How is an implantable sensor removed?

What is a real-time sensor? What is an intermittently scanned sensor? How do I find out my glucose with an intermittently scanned sensor? How do you read an intermittently scanned sensor? What happens if I forget to scan an intermittently scanned sensor? How many hours of data can an intermittently scanned sensor keep between two scans?

What does a sensor available on prescription mean? What does a sensor available without a prescription mean? Which sensors are available with and without a prescription? Can I buy a glucose sensor without seeing a doctor? Are non-prescription sensors suitable for a patient with type 1 diabetes? Where can I obtain a sensor that requires a medical prescription? Does a non-prescription sensor offer the same functions as one on prescription? Can I switch from a non-prescription sensor to one available on prescription? What role does the doctor have when I use a sensor on prescription?

What is a professional glucose sensor? Who owns and applies a professional sensor? How is a professional sensor used? How long do I wear a professional sensor? What does the doctor do with the data recorded by a professional sensor? Do I have to return the device after the wear period? In what situations might the doctor recommend a professional sensor? Do I need to do anything special while I wear a professional sensor?

What is an adjunctive sensor? What is a non-adjunctive sensor? What does it mean that you can rely on the sensor when making treatment decisions? Can a non-adjunctive sensor replace the glucometer for treatment decisions? When do I need to check my glucose with a finger prick if I have a non-adjunctive sensor? Is an adjunctive sensor less safe than a non-adjunctive one? How do I find out whether my sensor is adjunctive or non-adjunctive?

What is an integrated glucose sensor (iCGM)? What does the interoperability of a glucose sensor mean? What special standards must a sensor meet to be classified as iCGM? What is the main advantage of using an integrated sensor? How do I know whether my sensor is an iCGM? Does an iCGM sensor work on its own, without other connected devices?

What components make up a continuous glucose monitoring system? What is the sensor itself? What is the role of the transmitter? What is the receiver or display device? Can I use my phone as the display device? Do the transmitter and sensor form a single body, or are they separate? What is the role of the adhesive patch? What is the applicator? Are all the components changed at the same time? What happens if I lose the display device? Do the system components communicate wirelessly?

What is interstitial fluid? Why does the sensor measure glucose in the interstitial fluid rather than in blood? How does glucose get from the blood into the interstitial fluid? Is the glucose value in the interstitial fluid identical to that in blood? Does measurement in the interstitial fluid correctly reflect the blood glucose level? Does the amount of interstitial fluid affect the measurement? Do all sensors measure glucose in the interstitial fluid?

How does a transcutaneous sensor measure the blood glucose level? What is the role of the enzyme in the transcutaneous sensor? How does the transcutaneous sensor turn glucose into a signal? Does the reaction in the transcutaneous sensor consume glucose? How does the transcutaneous sensor's signal become a displayed value? Does the transcutaneous sensor need power to work?

How does an implantable sensor measure blood glucose levels? What technology does an implantable sensor use to detect glucose? What happens inside the implantable sensor when glucose levels change? How does the implantable sensor send the measured value to the outside? Does the implantable sensor consume glucose when it measures it? Does the component worn on the skin take part in measuring glucose?

What is the warm-up period of a sensor? Why does the sensor need a warm-up period? How long does a sensor's warm-up period last? What should I do during the warm-up period? How do I check my glucose during the warm-up period? Can I make treatment decisions during the warm-up period? Do I have to repeat the warm-up period for every new sensor? Do alarms work during the warm-up period?

How long does a glucose sensor last? What happens when a sensor reaches the end of its lifespan? Can I use the sensor after its lifespan has expired? Why do sensors have a limited lifespan? Do implantable sensors last longer than transcutaneous ones? When it expires, is the whole sensor replaced or only part of it?

How does the data get from the sensor to the phone or another display device? Where is the glucose sensor data stored? Is data lost if the display device is too far from the sensor? Can I access older glucose data? What happens to the glucose data if I change my phone? Can I export the glucose data to show my doctor? Is data lost if the phone or receiver battery runs out? Does the sensor need an internet connection to work?

What is an insulin pump? What does an insulin pump look like and what size is it? Where do you wear the insulin pump? Does the insulin pump measure my blood glucose? Does an insulin pump replace the pancreas? Does an insulin pump decide the insulin doses on its own? How long have insulin pumps been available?

How does insulin get from the pump into my body? What is a pump's basal rate? Can I program different basal rates throughout the day? What is an insulin bolus? How do I tell the pump to give me insulin at a meal? What is a correction bolus? Can I temporarily stop the delivery of insulin? How does the pump manage to deliver such tiny amounts of insulin? Does the pump work during sleep as well? Can I temporarily reduce my basal insulin when I exercise?

How does a healthy pancreas secrete insulin? Why does the pump try to mimic the natural release of insulin? Which part of natural secretion corresponds to the basal rates? Which part of natural secretion corresponds to the meal bolus? Can the pump copy the natural rhythm of insulin release perfectly? Why does the body need insulin between meals as well? Why does the body need more insulin at a meal? The insulin from the pump and the meal: how do you synchronise them?

What kind of insulin is used in a pump? Can I use long-acting insulin in a pump? Does a single type of insulin cover both the basal need and meals? How often do I have to change the insulin in the pump? How should I store insulin before putting it in the pump? Can heat damage the insulin in the pump? What happens if I run out of insulin in the pump? Does the concentration of the insulin used in the pump matter?

What makes pump treatment different from multiple daily injections? How many pricks are there with the pump compared with the insulin pen? Do I still need pen injections if I use a pump? Does the pump give more freedom at meals compared with injections? How are the doses adjusted on the pump compared with injections? Is pump treatment harder to learn than injections? Do I have to keep a fixed meal schedule on the pump?

What are the main benefits of pump treatment? Can the pump reduce hypoglycemic episodes? Can the pump give me more flexibility in daily activities? Can the pump help me have more stable glucose levels? Is the pump useful if I have high blood glucose in the morning? Can the pump help me eat at variable times? Can the pump help me exercise or play sport more easily? Could the pump improve my sleep? Could the pump increase my comfort in everyday life?

What are the limits of pump treatment? What happens if the pump breaks down? Why can insulin delivery be interrupted? Does the risk of ketone bodies increase on the pump? Do I have to wear the pump all the time? Does the pump require more attention every day? Can wearing the pump irritate my skin? Is pump treatment more expensive? Can there be situations in which the pump does not suit me? Do I need special training to use the pump safely?

What is a pump with external tubing? What is the tubing of a tubed pump for? How long is the tubing and can I choose its length? Where and how do I carry the body of a tubed pump? How much insulin fits into a tubed pump? Can the tubing catch on clothes or objects? Can air bubbles appear in the tubing? How widespread are tubed pumps? What are the advantages of a tubed pump? What are the disadvantages of a tubed pump?

What is a pump without external tubing, of the patch type? How do you stick a patch pump onto the skin? How do I control a tubeless pump if it has no buttons on it? On which areas of the body can a patch pump be stuck? How much insulin fits into a patch pump? How long can I wear the pump without external tubing? Is the patch pump single-use? Does a patch pump have any tubing between it and the skin? What happens if the patch pump comes off the skin? What advantages does a pump without external tubing have? What disadvantages does a pump without external tubing have?

What is a patch device for giving a bolus? How does it differ from an ordinary insulin pump? Who is this device useful for? Does the device also deliver basal insulin? How do I trigger a bolus with this device? Why is it designed mainly for type 2 diabetes? How much insulin does it release with one press? Does the device calculate the bolus dose for me? Can it be used together with injected basal insulin? Is it simpler to use compared with a full pump?

What is a patch pump for basal insulin? How does it differ from the daily basal insulin injection? Why does the device use rapid-acting insulin? How is the device's basal insulin rate chosen? How long is a basal pump worn? Does the device also give the mealtime insulin doses? Where on the body is the device applied? What happens if the device comes off or stops? Do I still need to measure my blood glucose? Who is this device suitable for?

What is an implantable insulin pump? Where in the body is an implantable pump placed? Is an operation needed to fit an implantable pump? How does the insulin get into the body from an implantable pump? How is a pump under the skin refilled with insulin? How often does an implantable pump have to be refilled? Can an implantable pump be seen from the outside? What kind of insulin does an implantable pump use? Are implantable pumps widely available? Who might need an implantable pump? How long does an implantable pump last before it has to be replaced?

What does interoperability of insulin pumps mean? What is an interoperable pump? Can I combine a pump from one manufacturer with a sensor from another? Can I choose each component of the system separately? What is an interoperable algorithm? Does any pump work with any sensor? How do I know that two components are compatible with each other? If I change the type of sensor, do I have to change the pump as well? Can I update a single component without changing the whole system? What do I gain if I use interoperable components?

What is type 2 diabetes and how does it differ from type 1? Why does your body become resistant to insulin? Can type 2 diabetes turn into type 1? Is type 2 diabetes reversible or curable? What does it mean that you still produce insulin? How does type 2 diabetes progress over time? What does the old name non-insulin-dependent diabetes mean? At what age does type 2 diabetes most often appear? What does beta cell exhaustion over time mean? How common is type 2 diabetes?

What are the main risk factors for type 2 diabetes? How does obesity influence the onset of diabetes? Is type 2 diabetes hereditary in your family? What role does a sedentary lifestyle play in the development of diabetes? How does age affect type 2 diabetes risk? Does ethnicity influence predisposition to diabetes? What foods increase type 2 diabetes risk? Can chronic stress trigger type 2 diabetes? Do smoking and alcohol influence the onset of diabetes? What medications can increase diabetes risk?

What is gestational diabetes and why does it develop? How does gestational diabetes differ from other types? Why didn't you have diabetes before pregnancy? Is gestational diabetes temporary or permanent? In which trimester does gestational diabetes most often appear? How common is gestational diabetes? Which pregnancy hormones affect blood glucose? Can gestational diabetes occur in any pregnancy? Why does the placenta influence glucose metabolism? What happens to diabetes after birth?

What is diabetes secondary to pancreatic diseases? How can chronic pancreatitis lead to diabetes? Why does pancreatic cancer cause diabetes? What is type 3c diabetes and how do you recognize it? How does cystic fibrosis affect the pancreas? After a pancreatectomy will you always have diabetes? Why does hemochromatosis destroy the pancreas? Can acute pancreatitis lead to permanent diabetes? How does pancreatic diabetes differ from type 1 or 2? What tests confirm a pancreatic origin?

What is body mass index (BMI)? How is BMI calculated? What BMI categories are there, and what are its limitations? How is BMI linked to diabetes?

What does the calorie calculator show? How are daily calorie needs calculated? What do the activity levels mean? How are calories linked to diabetes?

What does the macronutrient calculator show? How many carbohydrates per day are right in diabetes? Why are there three distribution patterns and not just one? How do I get from grams per day to the food on my plate?

What does ideal weight mean? How is the healthy weight range calculated? What is the Devine formula and what is it used for? What target weight makes sense when you have diabetes?

What does the body fat calculator measure? How do you take the measurements correctly? What body fat percentage is normal? Why does body fat matter in diabetes?

What does the waist-to-height ratio say that BMI does not? Where is the waist measured? Why is the boundary 0.5? What are the waist circumference thresholds?

What does the category my blood pressure falls into mean? What is mean arterial pressure and what is it for? Why does pulse pressure matter after 60? How do I measure my blood pressure properly at home?

What are the PREVENT equations? What do the 10-year and the 30-year risks mean? What do the extended equations, with HbA1c and UACR, add? How accurate is the result for me?

What is HbA1c (glycated hemoglobin)? How is HbA1c converted to estimated average glucose (eAG)? What is the IFCC value (mmol/mol) and how does it relate to percentages? What HbA1c target should I aim for?

Why are there two units for the same tests? How is the conversion between mg/dL and mmol/L (µmol/L) done? Which conversion factor is used for each test? What are these conversions useful for?

What is eGFR (estimated glomerular filtration rate)? How is the result interpreted (KDIGO stages G1–G5)? Why does eGFR matter for people with diabetes? What are the limitations of this estimate?

What is the Schwartz formula and when is it used? Why is the adult formula not used in children? How is the result interpreted in children? What are the limitations of the estimate in children?

What is the FIB-4 index? How is the result interpreted? How is FIB-4 linked to diabetes? What are the limitations of the FIB-4 index?

What is the FINDRISC score? How is the score interpreted? What can I do if my score is high? How accurate is this test?

What does the PHQ-9 questionnaire measure? What does my PHQ-9 score mean? Why does the PHQ-9 appear on a site about diabetes? Does a high score mean I have depression?

What does the GAD-7 questionnaire measure? What does my GAD-7 score mean? What is the link between anxiety and diabetes? Do GAD-7 and PHQ-9 measure the same thing?