Glycated haemoglobin shows your average glucose over 3 months

Glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) shows how much sugar has "stuck" to the haemoglobin in your red blood cells over the last three months [1]. It is like a "black box" that continuously records all your blood glucose levels, not just the ones you measure yourself. The higher and longer your blood glucose has been, the more haemoglobin becomes irreversibly glycated.

HbA1c is expressed in percentages (%) or mmol/mol. In people without diabetes it is below 5.7% (39 mmol/mol) [2]. For you, with type 1 diabetes, the target is below 7% (53 mmol/mol), individualised (higher or lower) by your doctor according to your age and other conditions [3]. An HbA1c of 7% (53 mmol/mol) corresponds to an average glucose over 2–3 months of approximately 154 mg/dl (8.6 mmol/L) [4]. Each 1% (11 mmol/mol) increase in HbA1c means roughly 30 mg/dl (1.7 mmol/L) more in your average glucose.

Guidelines recommend testing HbA1c every three months if you are not already at target or if you have made treatment changes [3]. Once your treatment is stable and you are at your HbA1c target, you can reduce to two tests per year. Most diabetes specialists prefer to recommend quarterly testing for optimal monitoring under any conditions.

There is no point in testing more frequently than every three months. Red blood cells generally live for three months, and this time is needed for their glycation to reflect changes in your blood glucose [1]. In special situations (major treatment changes, preparation for surgery), your doctor may request more frequent tests. The cost is reasonable and is usually covered by health insurance.

The standard target for most adults with type 1 diabetes is HbA1c below 7% (53 mmol/mol) [3]. This threshold generally offers the best balance between preventing complications and the risk of hypoglycaemia. For children and adolescents, the target is also below 7% (53 mmol/mol), except in very young children where it may sometimes be below 7.5% (58 mmol/mol) if there is a significant risk of hypoglycaemia (with possible impact on brain development) [5].

Your personal target may differ in either direction. It may be below 6.5% (48 mmol/mol) if you are young, without complications and without a significant risk of hypoglycaemia [5]. A more relaxed target, below 8% (64 mmol/mol), may be recommended if you have frequent severe hypoglycaemia, older age or advanced complications [3]. In pregnancy you cannot rely on HbA1c to assess metabolic control. Discuss your individualised HbA1c target with your doctor.

HbA1c reflects the overall average over three months, while daily blood glucose readings are snapshots of the moment [1]. Be careful! You can have a good HbA1c but very high glycaemic variability if you often swing from 40 (2.2 mmol/L) to 300 mg/dl (16.7 mmol/L) and back. You can also have good readings when you test with the glucometer but a high HbA1c because of hyperglycaemia you do not catch (for example, at night or between tests).

HbA1c is influenced more by glucose from the last month (50% of the value) than from three months ago (10%) [1]. HbA1c does not detect hypoglycaemia. HbA1c falls with hypoglycaemia, so you can end up with a good HbA1c alongside many dangerous low episodes [6]. That is why interpretation needs as much context as possible. In a way, HbA1c is like an overall average, and your daily readings are like your individual marks.

A number of conditions can affect HbA1c, independently of blood glucose [7]. Iron deficiency anaemia falsely raises the HbA1c result, while anaemia caused by the breakdown of red blood cells (haemolytic) lowers it. Red blood cell disorders, also called haemoglobinopathies (thalassaemia, sickle cell disease), interfere with HbA1c measurement, generally leading to falsely low values. Chronic kidney failure can raise HbA1c through uraemia, but dialysis falsely lowers it.

Blood transfusions radically change the result (a false decrease) [7]. Pregnancy, the rapid turnover of red blood cells (many short-lived cells being made and destroyed, for example in very young children) and some genetic haemoglobin variants also give falsely low HbA1c values [2]. Discuss with your doctor if you have such conditions, so that other ways of assessing metabolic control can be used.

Yes. You can have an HbA1c of 7% (53 mmol/mol) both with stable glucose of 90–150 mg/dl (5–8.3 mmol/L) and with extreme variability of 40–300 mg/dl (2.2–16.7 mmol/L). The average can be the same, but the risk of complications differs greatly. High glycaemic variability is associated with increased cardiovascular risk for the same HbA1c [8].

That is why modern guidelines draw attention to assessing, in addition to HbA1c, the time in range, defined as 70–180 mg/dl (3.9–10 mmol/L) and measured by a glucose sensor [8, 9]. The target is generally >70% time in range, below 4% of time spent below 70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/L) and below 25% above 180 mg/dl (10 mmol/L). A coefficient of variation below 36% indicates acceptable glycaemic variability [8, 9]. HbA1c remains important, but as you can see it does not tell the whole story.

The simple formula for estimating average glucose is: Average (mg/dl) = 28.7 × HbA1c(%) − 46.7 [4]. As a rough guide: HbA1c 6% (42 mmol/mol) => 126 mg/dl (7 mmol/L); 7% (53 mmol/mol) => 154 mg/dl (8.6 mmol/L); 8% (64 mmol/mol) => 183 mg/dl (10.2 mmol/L); 9% (75 mmol/mol) => 212 mg/dl (11.8 mmol/L); 10% (86 mmol/mol) => 240 mg/dl (13.3 mmol/L).

Remember that this is the overall 24/7 average, including the periods when you do not test (at night or between meals). It is not the average of your tests. The average of glucometer tests usually underestimates reality by about 30 mg/dl (1.7 mmol/L), because you miss the peaks that follow meals [4]. For maximum accuracy, a glucose sensor gives you the real average, calculated from thousands of small measurements [8].

The target below 7% (53 mmol/mol) comes from the classic DCCT study (carried out in 1993), which showed that keeping HbA1c below 7% (53 mmol/mol) reduces the risk of chronic microvascular complications (retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy) by 35–76% [10]. The benefit persisted long after metabolic control was relaxed once the study ended ("metabolic memory"). Patients in the intensive group had fewer complications even 30 years after the intervention [10].

Each 1% (11 mmol/mol) reduction in HbA1c lowers the risk of complications by about 30% [10]. The difference between 9% (75 mmol/mol) and 7% (53 mmol/mol) means halving the risk! There is an additional benefit for HbA1c values below 7% (53 mmol/mol), but it is smaller, and the risk of hypoglycaemia rises sharply without a glucose sensor [6]. That is why an HbA1c of 7% (53 mmol/mol) offers the best risk–benefit ratio for most patients.

Yes, a very low HbA1c, below 6% (42 mmol/mol), in a patient on treatment that carries a risk of hypoglycaemia (sulfonylureas or insulin) may indicate frequent low episodes, some possibly unnoticed [6]. The ACCORD study showed an increased cardiovascular risk with aggressive targeting below 6% (42 mmol/mol) in patients with type 2 diabetes on such treatment [11]. For people with type 1 diabetes, an HbA1c below 6.5% (48 mmol/mol) without using a glucose sensor is associated with about a 30% increase in the risk of severe hypoglycaemia [6].

There are also some exceptions. During the honeymoon period or close to the onset of the LADA form of type 1 diabetes, you can safely have a nearly normal HbA1c thanks to good residual insulin production. With access to modern technology (sensors, advanced closed-loop pumps), some patients reach an HbA1c below 6.5% (48 mmol/mol) without significant hypoglycaemia [5]. Assessment together with your doctor is essential for setting a treatment plan that gives you the best possible HbA1c.